Extended reality digital technologies in nephrology and dialysis: a scoping review

Introduction: Extended reality (XR), an umbrella term encompassing virtual reality, augmented reality, and mixed reality, is increasingly being explored to address educational, procedural, and psychosocial challenges in nephrology and dialysis. However, the breadth, maturity, and clinical focus of XR applications in this field have not been comprehensively mapped. The aim was to map and characterize the extent, nature, and focus of the evidence on XR in nephrology and dialysis, to identify application domains, and to highlight gaps that may inform future research and implementation. Methods: We conducted a scoping review in accordance with PRISMA-ScR guidance. We searched 5 databases for English-language sources published within the last 10 years. Eligible sources included full-text empirical studies, systematic reviews, case reports, cohort studies, surveys, case-control studies, and clinical trials addressing XR in nephrology and dialysis. Results: Eighteen studies met the inclusion criteria. The evidence clustered into 3 domains: (1) chairside and intradialytic symptom management using immersive VR; (2) dialysis training and self-management support, including VR-assisted peritoneal dialysis exchange learning and implementation workflows; and (3) education, procedural planning, and training in kidney-related anatomy and interventions using XR. Most studies were small, single-country investigations and were heterogeneous in XR modality, content, and outcome measures. Conclusions: XR in nephrology and dialysis has progressed from proof of concept toward early clinical and educational evaluation, with the strongest near-term signal in symptom management during hemodialysis and taskbased learning for peritoneal dialysis. Standardized outcomes, implementation research, equity-focused design, and pragmatic trials are needed before widespread adoption can be considered.