Ecosystem-based adaptation practices for smallholder farmers’ climate resilience: perceived effectiveness and co-benefit importance in Mabalane District-Mozambique

Ecosystem-based adaptation practices among smallholder farmers in drought-prone areas provides a positive response strategy to the increasing challenges posed by climate change, particularly declining crop yield under dry spells condition. Despite increasing acknowledgement of the role ecosystem-based adaptation practices play in enhancing agricultural resilience, very little studies have been done on the perception of smallholder farmers of the effectiveness of these practices. The objective of this study was to assess the perceived effectiveness of ecosystem-based adaptation practices adopted by smallholder farmers and the co-benefits importance in enhancing climate resilience. The study used a mixed-method approach involving a one-time household survey conducted from 11 September to 11 October 2025, lasting one month, with 360 smallholder farmers targeting household heads in Mabalane district in centre of Gaza Province of Mozambique. Purposive sampling, focus group discussions and key informants’ interviews were used for data collection. The results of the study revealed three key ecosystem-based adaptation practices namely mixed cropping (83.9%), integrated crop-livestock management (57.2%) and mulch-tillage (51.1%) as the most widely adapted practices among smallholder farmers. Perceived effectiveness was highest for practices that visibly improved soil fertility and quality, crop productivity and food security. Furthermore, the study revealed that smallholder farmers prioritize soil fertility improvement, increased crop productivity, enhanced soil moisture retention, and food security improvement. It is concluded that the predominance of the key ecosystem-based adaptation practices in the study area is attributed to their perceived effectiveness and their direct and synergistic contributions to climate resilience within the community’s traditional farming system, and in the context of locally important staple food crops.