Satellite remote sensing for hydrological intelligence and climate-resilient water governance in the Gulf Cooperation Council

Water security in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) is under existential threat from aquifer depletion, intensifying climate extremes, and escalating demand. While satellite Earth observation (EO) provides unprecedented capabilities to monitor these pressures, its integration into operational governance remains critically limited. This review examines the role of EO in enhancing hydrological intelligence by integrating multi-sensor data into actionable insights for decision support. This study systematically analyzed applications across subsurface water, drought, urban hydrology, and integrated modelling, revealing a stark paradox: despite having world-class EO infrastructure, utilization is fragmented and largely diagnostic. Emerging innovations in Artificial Intelligence (AI) and cloud computing signal a shift toward predictive governance; however, these are constrained by institutional inertia, rather than technological gaps. The analysis reveals that the fundamental bottleneck is a failure of institutional assimilation, characterised by fragmented data custodianship, restrictive policies, and limited analytical capacity. Consequently, this critical review argues that embedding hydrological intelligence into binding regulatory instruments, including groundwater quotas and drought contingency plans, is imperative for climate resilience. The GCC's water future hinges not on further technological innovation, but on its capacity to institutionalise EO within adaptive governance frameworks.