A comprehensive review of life cycle assessment in the leather industry: progress toward circularity, key challenges, and future directions

Abstract This comprehensive review examines the application of life cycle assessment (LCA) in the leather industry, emphasizing its pivotal role in advancing circular economy integration. Through literature analysis and case studies, this review demonstrates how LCA facilitates animal by-product valorization, waste minimization, and material circularity, transforming traditional leather production into a paradigm of resource efficiency. Key environmental hotspots are identified across system boundaries: animal husbandry dominates Cradle-to-Grave impacts, while chemical usage (e.g., chrome agents) and energy-intensive processes prevail in leather processing, modulated by regional energy mixes. Emerging sustainable technologies and waste valorization innovations show promise in curbing ecological footprints. However, challenges persist, including methodological inconsistencies, data shortages, and regional disparities. To overcome these challenges, the review advocates for unified sector-specific databases, multidimensional assessment frameworks, and AI-driven modeling. Ultimately, LCA emerges as an essential tool for impact quantification, circular transitions, and sustainable industry evolution. Graphical Abstract