Passive massive MIMO hybrid RF-perovskite energy harvesting frontend for LEO satellite applications

Abstract Low-Earth orbit (LEO) satellites encounter significant energy challenges during eclipse periods and low solar illumination, limiting mission autonomy, operational lifespan, and functionality. This paper presents a novel hybrid perovskite photovoltaic (PPV) energy harvester designed to enhance energy sustainability for small satellites in LEO and satellite-based sensor networks. The proposed system integrates multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) RF harvesting antennas, 3D-printed integrated passive devices, and perovskite tandem photovoltaic cells to maximise energy capture from both sub-6 GHz RF and solar sources. A comprehensive mathematical model is developed to optimise passive subsystem efficiencies, accounting for variations in solar flux and ambient RF power within the LEO environment. The integrated passive technology includes a 16-element MIMO antenna array, a power divider–combiner, and an energy beamforming topology that facilitates efficient inter-satellite wireless energy transfer. The 3D-printed hybrid power combiner–divider is tuned to 2.4 GHz, 5.0 GHz, 5.8 GHz and 6.0 GHz, corresponding to the Wi-Fi 4/5/6/6E bands and 5G sub-6 GHz spectrum, enabling simultaneous wireless energy and data exchange within constellation networks. The adopted perovskite tandem cell exhibits strong I–V and P–V performance, with the compact 6 × 6 passive array producing 12.5 V and delivering a maximum power output of 1.3 W. The 32-antenna passive MIMO rectifier subsystem achieves a peak RF-to-DC conversion efficiency of up to 98% at 0 dBm input power. These results represent a significant advancement in compact, high-efficiency, and additive-manufactured energy-harvesting architectures for LEO satellites, supporting sustained operation during eclipse conditions and enabling future satellite–cellular convergence for energy-aware space communications. This study presents the first LEO-oriented energy-harvesting framework that integrates scalable, sub-6 GHz MIMO RF energy capture with a perovskite solar-harvesting platform.