English language acquisition in resource-constrained contexts: Evidence from Bangladeshi children

English language acquisition in resource-constrained contexts presents unique challenges for learners worldwide. This study examines how Bangladeshi children aged 8–14 acquire English across rural and low-income urban settings in four regions of Bangladesh: Dhaka, Chittagong, Rajshahi, and Sylhet. A sequential explanatory mixed-methods design was employed with 160 children, 60 parents, 32 teachers, and 32 community representatives. Quantitative data were collected through standardised English proficiency assessments (adapted Cambridge Young Learners English Tests), environmental assessments, and structured surveys. In contrast, qualitative data consisted of semi-structured interviews, classroom observations (320 hours), and focus group discussions. Significant disparities in English exposure emerged across contexts, with urban, higher-income children receiving 12.3 hours weekly compared to 3.7 hours for rural children. Despite these constraints, children developed adaptive strategies through peer learning networks, self-directed learning, and creative use of resources. Factor analysis revealed four primary clusters of environmental challenges: resource limitations, time constraints, linguistic barriers, and social factors. The findings support the development of the Challenging Environments Language Acquisition Model (CELAM), which identifies five interconnected components that facilitate language acquisition in resource-constrained settings, and suggest implications for differentiated curriculum design, community-based language support, and mobile technology integration in Bangladesh and other comparable low-resource educational contexts.