Multi-scale social metabolism of China: An extended MuSIASEM analysis of energy, economy, and human activity

Understanding the interactions among economic activities, energy use, and human activity time is essential for evaluating pathways toward sustainable development. This study applies an extended Multi-Scale Integrated Analysis of Societal and Ecosystem Metabolism (MuSIASEM) framework to examine China's social metabolism from 1995 to 2019, integrating national, regional, and industrial-sector perspectives across 30 provinces and six major economic sectors. The results reveal a pronounced transformation of China's metabolic pattern over the study period. Rapid economic growth was accompanied by substantial increases in exosomatic metabolic rates (EMR) and economic labor productivity (ELP), alongside a marked decline in economic energy intensity (EEI). Significant regional disparities persist, with the eastern region exhibiting higher ELP and lower EEI, while the central and western regions remain more energy-intensive, reflecting differences in development stages and industrial structures. At the sectoral level, industry and transportation dominate energy use and EMR, whereas agriculture and construction display lower capitalization and ELP. An inverted U-shaped relationship between economic output and energy use is observed at the provincial level, suggesting heterogeneous economic-energy coupling trajectories across regions. By extending the MuSIASEM framework to incorporate industrial-sector analysis within a unified multi-scale structure, this study provides new insights into China's uneven socio-metabolic dynamics. The accounting framework focuses on paid-work sectors only, while household and informal metabolism are beyond scope due to data constraints. The findings highlight the importance of region- and sector-specific strategies aimed at industrial upgrading, improving energy efficiency, and strengthening human capital development to support China's transition toward more sustainable development pathways.