Combining satellite and farm-collected data to assess ecosystem functions in family-run cocoa production systems: a case study from the Abras de Mantequilla Ramsar site in Ecuador

Family farming systems are widespread in tropical cocoa production, supporting rural livelihoods while providing ecosystem services such as carbon storage and soil protection. However, farm structure and crop diversity are not always integrated into ecosystem function assessments, particularly in wetland–agriculture mosaics. This study analyses how crop diversity and farm characteristics influence soil organic carbon (SOC), biomass carbon (BOC), and erosion control (EC), and how these functions relate to climate regulation and erosion prevention in the Abras de Mantequilla Ramsar site, coastal Ecuador. Data were collected from 131 farms. Family farms were classified using k-means clustering based on labour composition and land-use distribution into three types: market-oriented farms with greater use of hired labour, small-scale farms mainly reliant on family labour, and balanced farms with mixed labour use. Non-family farms were analysed as a separate group. Crop diversity was quantified using Shannon's index. Ecosystem functions were mapped using an indicator-based approach that combines satellite-derived information with farm-level data. Statistical and machine-learning models were used to analyse relationships between crop diversity, farm type, and ecosystem functions. Results show heterogeneity across farm types: crop diversity was positively associated with SOC in one family-farm type and in non-family farms, BOC showed weak associations with farm characteristics, and EC showed no consistent relationships across farm categories. These findings indicate that accounting for farm structural diversity can improve ecosystem function assessments and inform policy approaches aimed at climate regulation and soil conservation in cocoa-based farming systems.