Problematizing women in early twentieth-century China: a Foucauldian analysis on gender discourse in the nation state agenda

Abstract This paper explores the historical entanglement of feminist discourses and nationalist agendas in early twentieth-century China. Through a Foucauldian lens of the archaeology of knowledge, it examines how women were objectified as symbols of societal weakness and tools for national rejuvenation. The discursive strategy, centered on the questions “why did women become a problem in early twentieth-century China?” and “how can we solve this problem?” prioritized transforming women into symbols of modernization. Focusing on the writings of male intellectuals such as Liang Qichao, Ma Junwu, and Jin Tianhe, the paper traces the emergence of the “Mother of the Nation” image as a dual symbol, representing national revival, while becoming an object of political regulation. The case of the “Heavenly Breast Movement” in the 1920s further demonstrates how abstract discourses of women’s emancipation were developed into biopolitical practices that disciplined female bodies in the service of modernization. The findings illustrate that the early feminist claims were articulated within a nationalist framework that instrumentalized women’s emancipation, subordinating individual agency to the imperatives of nation-building and redefining gender equality in terms of its contribution to national strength. In doing so, it contributes to a more nuanced understanding of the intersections between gender, modernization, and nationalism in early twentieth-century China.